【英文學習】紅樹林

Aquatic Botany 70 (2001) 259–268
Experimental assessment of salinity tolerance of
Ceriops tagal seedlings and saplings
from the Indus delta, Pakistan
Irfan Aziz, M. Ajmal Khan∗
Department of Botany, University of Karachi, P.O. Box 8452, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
Received 28 December 1999; received in revised form 21 June 2000; accepted 28 November 2000
Abstract
Propagules of Ceriops tagal (C. tagal) collected from the Indus delta were grown in pots containing
sandy soil sub-irrigated with 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% seawater fortified with nitrogen. Seedlings
were experimentally grown for 6 months and saplings for 12 months. Maximum growth was observed
in 50% seawater and declined with increasing salinity.Water relations data showed that this
species progressively adjusted its internal water potential in response to change in external water
potential, i.e. responded as an osmoconformer. C. tagal is also a non-secretor and accumulated a
larger quantity of sodium and chloride ions while availability of other ions were severely restricted.
Our result suggests that C. tagal is almost as salt tolerant as Avicennia marina but would not be able
to tolerate a sudden major shift in salinity. This species could, thus, probably be used to rehabilitate
inter-tidal areas, which receive a regular supply of fresh water. © 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All
rights reserved.
Keywords: Indus delta; Inter-tidal zone; Ions; Mangrove; Salinity; Water potential; Wetlands
1. Introduction
Mangrove vegetation is found in tropical and sub-tropical marine inter-tidal zones (Duke,
1992) and is dominated by halophytic woody species (Suarez et al., 1998). A large variation
in spatial, temporal and seasonal variation in salinity is characteristic of mangrove habitats,
particularly in arid sub-tropical regions (Gordon, 1993). Dense mangrove forests are
present along the entire coastal regions of the Sindh province (Pakistan), especially in the
vicinity of the Indus delta. In contrast, Balochistan coast is barren except for few places like
Miani Hor (Ansari, 1987). Detailed taxonomic and ecological surveys of the area have not
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +92-21-4963788; fax: +92-21-4963788.
E-mail address: (M.A. Khan).
0304-3770/01/$ – see front matter © 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S0304-3770(01)00160-7
260 I. Aziz, M.A. Khan / Aquatic Botany 70 (2001) 259–268
been conducted, but, earlier investigations reported the presence of eight species: Bruguiera
conjugata, Ceriops tagal (C. tagal), C. roxburghiana, Rhizophora apiculata, Rhizophora
mucronata (R. mucronata), Aegiceras corniculata, Avicennia marina and Sonneratia caseolaris
(Stewart, 1972). A more recent survey showed that Avicennia marina is the dominant
species (98%) followed by fewpopulations of (R. mucronata), C. tagal, and A. corniculatum
(Qureshi, 1993) while other species could not be located. Mangrove populations in Pakistan
are threatened because of over-exploitation, pollution, and a decline in fluvial discharge into
the Indus delta (Ansari, 1987; IUCN, 1988; Qureshi, 1993). A decrease in fluvial discharge
would result in increased salinity of seawater, which reportedly prevents fruiting, and causes
senescence of immature flowers and buds (Qureshi, 1993). It is estimated that mangrove
cover has decreased by 15% in past 20 years due to reduction in Indus discharge (IUCN,
1988).
Mangrove species often show growth stimulation at low salinity (25% seawater) and
then a decline in growth with further increases in salinity (Clough, 1984; Downton, 1982;
Naidoo, 1987; Burchett et al., 1989; Karim and Karim, 1993). They possess a variety of
adaptations to extreme environmental stresses such as: (i) salt exclusion by root ultrafiltration
(Hegemeyer, 1997), (ii) salt recretion via glands (Roth, 1992), (iii) Ion accumulation in leaf
cells (Popp, 1994), and (iv) Leaf succulence (Roth, 1992). Whereas the most common
species in the Indus delta, Avicennia marina, is fairly well studied and known to respond
as osmoregulator (Aziz and Khan, 2000), the other more common species have received
little attention (Tomlinson, 1986). The paper presents findings from pot experiments with C.
tagal (Perr.) C.B. Rob. seedlings and saplings.We investigated whether (1) C. tagal growth
would also be maximal at 25% seawater as in other species; (2) there would be a difference
in growth and salinity tolerance of C. tagal at seedling and sapling stages, and (3) whether
C. tagal would respond as osmoconformer or osmoregulator with increasing salinity.
2. Materials and methods
Propagules of C. tagal were collected during summer 1992 from the Indus delta populations
near Karachi, Pakistan. These were immediately transferred to 36 cm diameter plastic
pots filled with acid washed beach sand. The pots with the drainage were arranged in a randomized
block design and five plants per treatment with five replicate pots each were used.
Plants were grown to seedlings (6 months) and saplings (12 months) in an uncontrolled
green house under natural temperature and light. Plants were irrigated with half strength
Hoagland and Arnon solution no. 2 for 2 weeks through sub-irrigation. After 2 weeks of
growth, plants were treated with five concentrations of seawater (0, 25, 50, 75, and 100%)
fortified with nitrogen (Popp and Polania, 1989). Seawater dilutions were made by using
salt obtained from drying of seawater. The concentration of seawater of the Arabian sea
at Karachi, Pakistan is about 600mM (58.2 dSm−1 or 35‰). Fresh tap water was added
daily to correct for evaporation. The water in seawater treatments was completely replaced
once a week to avoid built up of salinity in pots. At the initiation of the experiment, the
seawater concentration of all treatments was gradually increased by 25% seawater at 2 days
intervals (for 25% = 2 days; 50% = 4 days; 75% = 8 days; 100% = 8 days) to reach
the maximum salinity levels of 100% seawater after 8 days (preliminary test showed that
I. Aziz, M.A. Khan / Aquatic Botany 70 (2001) 259–268 261
a 2 days gap was sufficient). Fresh and dry weight of plant shoots and roots, plant height,
number of nodes, number of leaves, leaf area and diameter of stem at the first inter-node
were measured twice at 6 month intervals (at both seedling and sapling stages) after the
highest salt concentration was reached. Dry mass was determined after drying for 48 h in a
forced-draft oven at 60◦C.
The leaves selected from the first bottom node of the plant was designated as “old leaf”
and those collected from the second node to the apex were termed “young leaf”. Leaf water
potential for old leaves and young leaves was measured with a Wescor HR33T Dew
Point Microvoltmeter. Osmotic potential in both young and old leaves was then measured
by freezing the leaf disk (5mm diameter) in liquid nitrogen and using the same equipment.
Xylem pressure potential of the stem was measured with a pressure bomb (Arimad-2,
Wagtech International Limited, UK) on five shoots from each treatment. Stomatal conductance
was measured using an A-4 porometer (Delta-T devices) on the adaxial surface of
fully expanded young and old leaves.
For proline and ion measurements, 0.5 g of plant material was boiled in 10 ml of water
for 2 h at 100◦C using a dry heat bath. This hot water extract was cooled and filtered using
Whatman no. 42 filter paper, and then used directly to measure proline according to Bates
et al. (1973). The acid soluble, total and water soluble oxalates were measured according to
Karimi and Ungar (1986). A volume of 1ml of hot water extract was diluted with distilled
water for ion analysis. Chloride ion content was measured with a Beckman specific ion
electrode whereas cations of plant organs (Na+ andK+) were analyzed using a Perkin-Elmer
model 360 atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Ca2+ and Mg2+ concentrations were
assayed by flame emission atomic absorption spectrometer.
The results of growth, ion contents and water relations were analyzed using two way
ANOVA and proline and oxalate contents with one way ANOVA. A Bonferroni-test was
carried out to determine if significant (P < 0.05) differences occurred among individual
treatments (SPSS, 1996).
3. Results
Seedlings and saplings of C. tagal had the highest biomass at 50% dilution of seawater,
lower and higher dilutions resulted in less biomass (Tables 2 and 3). Compared to the effect
of growth stage (seedlings versus saplings), salinity effects generally contributed substantially
more to the explained variation (higher SS), although, both factors were significant
(Table 1). This is confirmed by the observation that sampling has hardly increased their
weight compared to seedling (Tables 2 and 3). Number of nodes and leaves in both seedlings
and saplings did not change up to 50% seawater treatment but a significant (P <0.05) decrease
occurred with an increase in salinity (Tables 2 and 3). Stem diameter did not change
up to 75% seawater and declined in the 100% salinity treatment (Tables 2 and 3). Leaf area
was significantly (P <0.001) higher at 50% seawater than in the other treatments (Tables 2
and 3).
Water potential in seedlings and saplings increased with an increase in salinity (Fig. 1A).
There was no significant (P < 0.05) difference in water potentials between seedlings and
saplings (Table 1).Water and osmotic potential in both seedlings and saplingswas positively
262 I. Aziz, M.A. Khan / Aquatic Botany 70 (2001) 259–268
Table 1
Two way ANOVAS of the effect of plant stage (seedling and sapling), salinity (0–100% seawater) on a number of
plant response parametersa
Independent variable Plant stage Salinity Interaction Residual Total
SS d.f. P SS d.f. P SS d.f. P SS d.f. SS d.f.
Fresh weight 0.73 1 00.05 41.20 8 0.001 0.18 8 0.01 0.92 40 43.60 49
Dry weight 0.06 1 00.01 37.60 8 0.001 0.04 8 0.001 0.53 40 39.30 49
Leaf area 21.2 1 0.001 44.30 8 0.001 0.32 8 0.001 0.45 40 48.20 49
Xylem tension 0.03 1 NS 00.95 8 0.001 0.13 8 00.01 0.35 40 154.6 49
Osmotic potential 0.61 1 00.01 40.23 8 0.001 0.02 8 NS 2.01 40 43.7 49
Water potential 0.0006 1 NS 40.42 8 0.001 0.15 8 NS 0.85 40 42.20 49
Stomatal conductance 1012 1 0.001 2109 8 0.001 264 8 0.001 407 40 37749 49
a Presented are the factors: residual and total sum of squares (SS), their degrees of freedom (d.f.) and levels of
significance (P).
Table 2
Given are means±S.E. (n = 5) of fresh weight, dry weight, plant height, number of nodes, stem diameter, number
of leaves and leaf area after 6 months culture (seedlings) of Ceriops tagal in different seawater dilutions
Growth parameters Seawater (%)
0 25 50 75 100
Fresh weight (g) 35.0a ± 1.5 43.5b ± 0.98 63.0c ± 1.60 39.1ab ± 2.10 35.0a ± 0.98
Dry weight (g) 3.50a ± 0.12 4.20b ± 0.21 5.20c ± 0.09 3.20d ± 0.10 3.10d ± 0.09
Plant height (cm) 45.8b ± 1.2 43.5b ± 2.3 49.8c ± 2.8 39.1a ± 3.3 41.2a ± 1.2
Number of nodes 6.3b ± 0.9 6.0b ± 0.8 6.0b ± 1.2 4.0a ± 0.7 4.6a ± 0.6
Stem diameter (cm) 0.6a ± 0.03 0.6a ± 0.04 0.7b ± 0.03 0.6a ± 0.02 0.5b ± 0.02
Number of leaves 9.6b ± 1.2 9.3b ± 1.8 9.6b ± 2.9 7.6a ± 1.3 7.6a ± 1.7
Leaf area per plant (cm2) 33.7b ± 0.9 30.7a ± 1.3 61.2c ± 1.62 29.5a ± 1.3 28.4a ± 0.7
Mean values in rows for each parameter having the different letters are significantly different at P < 0.05
level by Bonferroni-test.
Table 3
Given are means±S.E. (n = 5) of fresh weight, dry weight, plant height, number of nodes, stem diameter, number
of leaves and leaf area after 12 months culture (saplings) of Ceriops tagal in different seawater dilutions
Growth parameters Seawater (%)
0 25 50 75 100
Fresh weight (g) 47.1a ± 2.30 44.8a ± 1.90 59.0b ± 0.96 42.9a ± 2.10 40.5a ± 1.53
Dry weight (g) 03.8a ± 0.30 04.3a ± 0.09 05.5b ± 0.14 03.4c ± 0.24 03.3c ± 0.14
Plant height (cm) 47.1b ± 1.2 44.8b ± 1.3 52.4c ± 2.8 42.9a ± 3.3 41.2a ± 1.2
Number of nodes 6.3b ± 0.9 6.0b ± 0.8 7.3c ± 1.2 5.0a ± 0.7 4.6a ± 0.6
Stem diameter 0.7b ± 0.03 0.7b ± 0.04 0.8c ± 0.03 0.6a ± 0.02 0.5a ± 0.02
Number of leaves 9.6b ± 1.3 9.3b ± 1.8 9.6b ± 2.9 8.0a ± 1.3 7.3a ± 1.7
Leaf area per plant (cm2) 36.7b ± 0.9 39.8b ± 1.3 76.2c ± 1.62 32.5a ± 1.3 31.9a ± 0.7
Mean values in rows for each parameter having the different letters are significantly different at P < 0.05
level by Bonferroni-test.
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Fig. 1. Effect of NaCl (0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% seawater) on the (A) water potential and (B) osmotic potential of
Ceriops tagal seedlings and saplings. A linear regression, means and standard errors are represented.
correlated with the concentration of seawater. Osmotic potential in seedlings and saplings
became increasingly more negative (P < 0.0001) with increase in seawater concentration
(Fig. 1B, Table 1). Stomatal conductance decreased significantly (P <0.001) with increase
in salinity (Fig. 2, Table 1). Stomatal conductance was significantly higher in older leaves
and saplings. There was a negative relationship (r = −0.96) between stomatal conductance
and salinity.
The xylem tension increased with the increase in salinity (Fig. 3, Table 1), however,
xylem tension of seedlings was similar to that of saplings. There was a positive relationship
(r = −0.96) between xylem tension and salinity.
Total concentrations of cations (Na+,K+,Ca2+, andMg2+) and the anion (Cl−) increased
with increase in salinity (Table 4). At all seawater dilutions the increase in total inorganic
ions resulted from increased Na+ and Cl−. Calcium,K+, andMg2+ concentration decreased
with an increase in salinity.
In young leaves, proline concentration substantially increased at low salinity and peaked
at 50% seawater a further increase in salinity had no affect on proline content (Fig. 4).
Old leaves followed the same pattern but concentration of proline was significantly lower
than young leaves (Fig. 4). All three types of oxalate production significantly (P <0.001)
decreased with an increase in seawater concentration (Fig. 5).
264 I. Aziz, M.A. Khan / Aquatic Botany 70 (2001) 259–268
Fig. 2. Effect of NaCl (0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% seawater) on the stomatal conductance in Ceriops tagal seedlings
and saplings. A linear regression, means and standard errors are represented.
Fig. 3. Effect of NaCl (0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% seawater) on the xylem tension in Ceriops tagal seedlings and
saplings. A linear regression, means and standard errors are represented.
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Table 4
Ion concentration (mol g−1 dry weight) in the Ceriops tagal saplings harvested 12 months after the highest
salinity reached
Ions Seawater (%)
0 25 50 75 100
Sodium 284a ± 1.8 290a ± 4.5 323b ± 6.5 421c ± 9.8 848d ± 7.31
Potassium 84a ± 2.3 94a ± 9.8 70a ± 3.4 57c ± 2.1 37c ± 3.9
Calcium 63a ± 1.2 60a ± 3.2 75b ± 9.9 56c ± 3.3 44d ± 3.6
Magnesium 71a ± 3.4 85b ± 4.9 93b ± 10.5 60c ± 6.7 84d ± 8.7
Chloride 286a ± 9.8 270a ± 3.4 340b ± 6.5 466c ± 7.8 973d ± 6.9
Values in each column having the same letter are not significantly different atP <0.05, Bonferroni-test.
Fig. 4. Effect of NaCl (0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% seawater) on the proline content in Ceriops tagal. Bar represent
means ± standard errors. Different letter above bars represent significant differences (P < 0.05) between
treatments.
Fig. 5. Effect of NaCl (0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% seawater) on the oxalate content in Ceriops tagal plants. Bar
represent means±standard errors. Different letter above bars represent significant differences (P <0.05) between
treatments.
266 I. Aziz, M.A. Khan / Aquatic Botany 70 (2001) 259–268
4. Discussion
Among the seawater treatments the greatest increase in most of the growth parameterswas
observed in plants irrigated with 50% seawater. These results do not agree with some other
studies in which mangrove species showed their best growth at 25% seawater concentration
(Burchett et al., 1989; Downton, 1982; Clough, 1984; Naidoo, 1987). However, Karim and
Karim (1993) reported that best growth for Avicennia marina from Bangladeshi coast was
obtained at 50% seawater. The coast of Karachi is regarded as one of the most arid coasts in
the world and it may be that mangrove populations growing in this region have adapted to
these condition by developing higher salt tolerance in comparison to the mangroves from
more mesic regions in Australia and South Africa.
Osmoregulation is generally regarded as the most important adaptation against higher
media salinity (Jefferies, 1980). Halophytes usually employ different mechanisms of salt
tolerance. Some halophytes (e.g. Salicornia europaea) when exposed to salinity develop
a more negative water and osmotic potential. Small perturbations in salinity have little
effect on them (osmoregulators) (Karim, 1984). However, other halophytes like Atriplex
triangularis progressively make their water and osmotic potential more negative with an
increase in salinity (osmoconformers) (Karim, 1984; Khan et al., 1999 Khan et al., 2000a,b).
C. tagal showed a progressive increase in tissue water and osmotic potentials with increase
in salinity of the medium indicating that it follows an osmoconformer strategy to maintain
its osmotic balance.
Salt tolerant species showed a low stomatal conductance and high water use efficiency
under high drought and salinity stress (Sharma, 1977; Werner and Stelzer, 1990; Gordon,
1993). This low stomatal conductance decreases the rate of CO2 accumulation and uptake,
rate of transpiration and increase in xylem tension (Ball and Farquhar, 1984). C. tagal in
this study also substantially reduced the stomatal conductance along with the increase in
xylem tension.
The non-salt secreting species C. tagal had internal salt concentrations not much different
from co-occurring Avicennia marina under hypersaline conditions (Gordon, 1993). The
means by which non-secretors avoid salt damage may include efficient sequestering of
ions to the vacuoles in the leaf (Stewart and Ahmed, 1983), translocation outside the leaf,
possible cuticular transpiration (Tomlinson, 1986) and efficient leaf turnover to facilitate
salt shedding. C. tagal is a salt tolerant mangrove with the competitive ability to grow in
highly saline and poorly inundated locations (Ball, 1988; Gordon, 1993). High internal
salt concentrations provide potential benefits to plants growing under conditions where soil
osmotic potential is far lower than that of seawater on account of high soil salinity (Ungar,
1991) by contributing to the low internal potential required to permit water uptake. Our
study showed that C. tagal maintained a high concentration of sodium and chloride, which
increased with salinity.
Organic solutes, which cause a minimum amount of perturbation to macromolecular
stability and cytoplasmic enzyme function, accumulate in eukaryotic cells as they adjust
to low osmotic potentials (Stoery et al., 1977). C. tagal accumulates a lot of sodium and
chloride ions and the amount of proline significantly increased with salinity, however, this
increase is not sufficient to balance a large amount of salt present in vacuoles. Soluble oxalate
concentrations decreased with increase in salinity, indicating no role in osmoregulation.
I. Aziz, M.A. Khan / Aquatic Botany 70 (2001) 259–268 267
Popp and Albert (1995) reported that C. tagal accumulates cyclitols along with Na+ and
Cl− to maintain osmotic balance.
It appears from our data that if sufficient amounts of Indus river water are continuously
mixed with seawater optimal conditions would prevail for the growth of C.