美國聯邦調查局的「全國司法案件報案系統」(National Incident-Based Reporting System, NIBRS)於2016年加入執法機構,開始匯集虐待動物案件的詳細資訊,[29] 將虐待動物歸為甲類犯罪,定義為:
上述定義突顯出虐待動物已被獨立歸為一種犯罪類別,以及調查與起訴這些罪行的重要性。[31] 虐待動物在「全國司法案件報案系統」裡分為單純/嚴重忽略、蓄意虐待與折磨、組織性的虐待及動物性虐待四大類,雖然上述的虐待動物定義與類別本應納入全美各州法律規定之內,但只要地方上出現任何符合上述定義與條件的虐待動物案件,都應提交至「全國司法案件報案系統」。[32]
「全國司法案件報案系統」於2016年之前,虐待動物屬於「所有其他罪行」類,因此無法針對虐待動物的資料進行具體分析。[33] 雖然爬梳這些資料將費時多年,卻能讓執法人員和其他利害關係人瞭解大局。舉例來說,透過這些資料,就能清楚知道是誰犯了虐待動物的罪行、確認最常見的虐待動物司法審理案件為何,及虐待動物與其他種犯罪之間的關聯。利害關係人可以在回答這些問題時,瞭解可以在哪些領域運用相關資源,並改善執法訓練。[34]
根據「全國司法案件報案系統」初步分析2018年以降的資料,每年每10萬人當中,虐待動物案件約有4.43起,以相同條件相比,攻擊案件有106.68起、搶劫案件65.77,毒品案件799.40起。[35] 然而,不是所有的執法機關都會將資料呈報到「全國司法案件報案系統」,因為介入調查的往往都是不被視為執法機關的動物管制機構或動保組織,所以資料都不會呈報到上述系統。為了確保「全國司法案件報案系統」資料的正確性,執法人員應該與這些機構合作,全國動物受暴委員會(National Council on Violence Against Animals)則提供執法機關一份備忘錄範本,來協助他們與相關組織建立關係。[36]
雖然研究虐待動物時必然會運用「全國司法案件報案系統」的資料,但目前許多研究報告也會運用其他資料來源。例如,研究人員也調查了人口統計資料,以及因虐待動物遭到逮捕的成人男性罪犯特徵,研究裡的罪犯平均年齡為37歲,其中41%的比例有一次以上的人際暴力前科,18%有性犯罪前科,28%曾犯下各種人際罪行(例:違反禁令或騷擾等)。[37]
調查考量
2010年的美國愛護動物協會(the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals,ASPCA)的一份研究,將重點放在執法機關及其在虐待動物調查過程中扮演的角色。根據這份研究結果,大約有1/5的執法機關人員表示他們自己受過虐待動物案件相關訓練,熟悉虐待動物法規的不到1/2,只有1/3表示熟知相關刑罰。此外,這份研究也發現了執法專員遇到虐待動物案件時遭遇的三大困難。
- 缺乏動物虐待案件相關知識
- 上級認為動物虐待屬於次要案件
- 缺乏安置證物動物的處所 [38]
在鬥狗方面,美國愛護動物協會於2015年另外進行一份研究,發現有半數執法人員表示遇過鬥狗案件,但僅23%透露自己的部門擁有調查這些案件必要資源及訓練。[39] 超過半數接受問卷調查的人表示自己從未接受調查鬥狗案件的相關訓練,40%則說資源有限會影響他們調查鬥狗案件。
跨領域交叉報案方法
惟有透徹瞭解動物虐待、相關調查以及適用規範,才能好好處理動物虐待的案件,這同時也是處置其他案件的必要條件。警察懷疑有虐待動物或代表可能有虐待動物的其他犯罪之嫌時,會遇到各種複雜因素及調查重疊的問題。然而,但若能採用跨領域的交叉報案方式,來處理虐待動物案件及其他涉及動物虐待案件,就有機會拯救生命。[40]
事前知道虐待動物與暴力行為之間的關聯,將有利於案件調查。要達成這的目標,則需要主要相關機構攜手合作,組成跨領域團隊。兒童保護機構、動物保護團體、獸醫、國內的受暴者庇護機構、醫療單位及執法單位,各個都有可能創造出一種綜合性的調查與連結方法。因此好好建立關係,就能相互切磋、更有可能積極採取行動,並熟悉可善用的資源。
處理鬥狗案件時,往往需要仰賴執法單位、動物保護與動物福利法醫專家之間相當多的資源與合作。很多州都會組成跨領域專案小組,來防止鬥狗事件的發生。[41] 美國愛護動物協會成立「血腥運動處理中心」(Blood Sports Unit),加州大學戴維斯分校獸醫遺傳學實驗室(University of California-Davis Veterinary Genetics Laboratory)也發展出犬科基因聯合索引系統(CODIS system),來協助辨識DNA證據,並進行相關連結,遇到鬥狗案件時,有助於執法調查與訴訟單位提出更強而有力的說明。[42]
若有人聲稱發生虐待動物事件,機關就必須進行調查,因為不認真看待,可能會導致更多不幸。會在第一線遇到動物和兒童受到疏忽照顧的人,往往都是執法與兒童保護服務中心的職員。現在全國境內都有交叉報案的法規與訓練,以利各個不同領域通報虐待案件。[43] 此外,有些州訂定的交叉報案法律更允許或甚至要求成人與兒童保護中心,只要遇到虐待動物的疑似案件或跡象都須報案。這些法規的訂定,使執法、社福、動物關懷單位之間得以共享人或動物遭到虐待的相關資料。[44]
相關人員只要在與受暴者互動時,開口詢問一下動物及其狀況,就能發現家中出現的其他暴力行為,因為受暴者也許會猶豫或不太願意提自己受到的虐待,但會很願意討論寵物遭受的虐待。[45] 相關人員與他們聊的時候,應提出具體的問題,例如「他怎麼對待動物?」以及「動物陷入麻煩時怎麼辦?」,並觀察家裡的人與寵物之間的互動方式以及寵物的行為狀態,同時迂迴地向小孩提出一些問題,問問他們與動物之間互動的經驗為何。[46]
其他資源
執法人員有不少訓練課程與教材可以運用,且多數都是免費的。「全國地方檢察官公會」(the National District Attorneys Association)編製「動物虐待案件的調查與起訴」(Investigating and Prosecuting Animal Abuse)指南裡,有大量資訊供執法人員使用,[47] 美國愛護動物協會也與美國司法部之社區警政辦公室(the U. S. Department of Justice’s Community Oriented Policing Services Office)聯合開設鬥狗知識線上課程,並合製其他調查相關議題的執法和調查人員指南文件。同樣地,美國動保協會(the Humane Society of the United States)也為全國的執法部門開設了「違反動物法犯罪事件注意事項」(Investigation Considerations Concerning Animal Crime Violations)課程。
獸醫注意事項
執法機關應考慮與獸醫及其同僚建立關係,因為他們的立場特殊,可以觀察到動物和把寵物帶來寵物醫院評估的主人狀況。因此獸醫會知道看到動物受虐時,該與哪些執法人員聯繫,也能向當局通報家裡發生的具體情況。
獸醫也許會透過門診,在動物病患身上看到受虐跡象,例如照X光之後發現癒合程度不等的骨折痕跡等,而進一步評估傷口是否與主人的描述相符,完全是獸醫的責任。評估動物狀況時,獸醫也同時在瞭解家庭的互動狀況、住家環境以及主人的憂慮。他們可以找出可疑的跡象,實施相關規定來協助有需要的人和動物。然而,不是所有的行業遇到這類情形,都有相關規定能夠依循。[48]
目前已制定動物虐待相關報警規定的,約有20個州,其他州只認為這是獸醫守則(Principles of Veterinary Medical Ethics)的道德責任。大多數的州會規定獸醫有責任通報,制定允許獸醫違反病患保密原則的自主通報法,亦或是提供同伴動物豁免權,以迴避通報虐待事件應負的民事或刑事責任。[49]
結論
很多領域都會接觸到虐待動物的案件,而執法單位是有辦法透過持續接觸這些學科領域,來提昇調查能力的。建立跨領域的團隊,有助於執法人員從不同觀點切入來初步瞭解情況,看出、防止或阻止動物遭到虐待與犯罪事件的發生。明白虐待動物與暴力行為之間的關聯,使執法人員更有機會拯救動物與人的生命。
其他調查策略
執法單位調查虐待動物及其他可能同時發生的犯罪案件時,可以採用其他調查策略,動物法醫梅琳達.默克博士(Dr. Melinda Merck)也提出了幾個注意事項。
- 運用當下明顯可用理由申請搜索令,例如:那裡是否有什麼鬥狗相關設備?
- 運用虐待動物的控訴罪名來「突擊」或作為制衡的力量。
- 謹記一點:家庭暴力的加害者,可能也會虐待動物。
- 根據他們的訓練與經驗談,獸醫目睹犯罪現場時,觀察到的會與執法人員不同。例如,他們會更瞭解事件牽涉到動物時,現場應該會有或不應有什麼東西,欠缺適當訓練時,可能會漏看一些物件。執法人員遇到疑似虐待動物的犯罪現場時,應考慮聯繫獸醫或動物管制中心人員協助。美國動保協會在每一個州都派駐一名代表,來協助相關人員聯絡附近獸醫或動物法醫專家。[50]
參考文獻
[1] Phil Arkow, “Recognizing and Responding to Cases of Suspected Animal Cruelty, Abuse, and Neglect: What the Veterinarian Needs to Know,” Veterinary Medicine: Research and Reports, no. 6 (November 2015): 349-359, accessed January 26, 2021, http://dx.doi.org/10.2147/VMRR.S87198. [2] Catherine A. Faver and Elizabeth B. Strand, “Domestic Violence and Animal Cruelty: Untangling the Web of Abuse,” Journal of Social Work Education 39, no. 2 (2003): 237-253, accessed January 26, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1080/10437797.2003.10779134. [3] Ibid. [4] Arnold Arluke et al., “The Relationship of Animal Abuse to Violence and Other Forms of Antisocial Behavior,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 14, no. 9 (September 1999): 963-975, accessed January 26, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1177/088626099014009004. [5] Harold Hovel, The Connection Between Animal Abuse and Human Violence (Kingston, NY: New York State Humane Association, 2019), accessed January 26, 2021, https://www.nyshumane.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Hovell-H-Animal-Abuse-Web-print-2-2020-edition-OPTIM-ToC-revised3.pdf. [6] “Facts and Myths About Domestic Violence and Animal Abuse,” Animal Welfare Institute, accessed January 26, 2021, https://awionline.org/content/facts-and-myths-about-domestic-violence-and-animal-abuse. [7] Shelby McDonald et al., “Intimate Partner Violence Survivors’ Reports of Their Children’s Exposure to Companion Animal Maltreatment: A Qualitative Study,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 34, no. 13 (July 2019): 2627-2652, accessed January 26, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516689775. [8] Clifton Flynn, “Examining the Links Between Animal Abuse and Human Violence,” Crime, Law and Social Change 55, no. 5 (June 2011): 453-468, accessed January 26, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-011-9297-2. [9] Andrew M. Campbell et al., “Intimate Partner Violence and Pet Abuse: Responding Law Enforcement Officers’ Observations and Victim Reports from the Scene,” Journal of Interpersonal Violence 36, no. 5-6 (March 2018): 1-20, accessed January 26, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518759653; and Hovel. [10] Hovel; and Amber R. Macias-Mayo, “The Link Between Animal Abuse and Child Abuse,” American Journal of Family Law 32, no. 3 (Fall 2018): 130-136, accessed August 2, 2021, https://www.wbmhlaw.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Article-The-Link-Between-Animal-Abuse-and-Child-Abuse.pdf. [11] Campbell et al. [12] National Link Coalition, The Link Between Violence to People and Violence to Animals (Stratford, NJ: National Link Coalition), accessed January 26, 2021, https://nationallinkcoalition.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/LinkSummaryBooklet-16pp.pdf. [13] National Sheriffs’ Association, Animal Cruelty as a Gateway Crime (Washington, DC: Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, 2018), accessed January 26, 2021, https://cops.usdoj.gov/RIC/Publications/cops-w0867-pub.pdf. [14]“Pet and Women Safety (PAWS) Act,” Animal Welfare Institute, accessed January 26, 2021, https://awionline.org/content/pet-and-women-safety-paws-act. [15] Ibid. [16] “Preventing Animal Cruelty and Torture (PACT) Act,” Animal Welfare Institute, accessed January 26, 2021, https://awionline.org/content/preventing-animal-cruelty-and-torture-pact-act. [17] “Laws That Protect Animals,” Animal Legal Defense Fund, accessed January 26, 2021, https://aldf.org/article/laws-that-protect-animals/. [18] Hovel. [19] “Cockfighting Fact Sheet,” The Humane Society of the United States, accessed January 26, 2021, https://www.humanesociety.org/resources/cockfighting-fact-sheet. [20] U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, and American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, Dogfighting: A Guide for Community Action, Randall Lockwood, November 2012, 7, accessed August 4, 2021, https://cops.usdoj.gov/ric/Publications/cops-w0682-pub.pdf. [21] “Dogfighting,” Humane Society International, accessed January 26, 2021, https://www.hsi.org/issues/dogfighting/. [22] U.S. Department of Agriculture, Animal Welfare Act, 2020, accessed August 2, 2021, https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/ourfocus/animalwelfare/awa/ct_awa_program_information. [23] “Animal Fighting Spectator Prohibition Act,” Animal Welfare Institute, accessed August 2, 2021, https://awionline.org/content/animal-fighting-spectator-prohibition-act. [24] Lockwood. [25] Wethal. [26] James M. Lewis, “The Violent Underworld of Dog Fighting,” DVM360, July 1, 2007, accessed August 2, 2021, https://www.dvm360.com/view/violent-underworld-dog-fighting. [27] Lockwood. [28] Hovel. [29] U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, “Tracking Animal Cruelty: FBI Collecting Data on Crimes Against Animals,” February 2016, accessed January 26, 2021, https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/-tracking-animal-cruelty. [30] U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Uniform Crime Reporting Program, National Incident-Based Reporting System, NIBRS Offense Definitions, 2018, accessed January 26, 2021, https://ucr.fbi.gov/nibrs/2018/resource-pages/nibrs_offense_definitions-2018.pdf. [31] Mary L. Randour et al., “Animal Abuse as a Type of Trauma: Lessons for Human and Animal Service Professionals,” Trauma, Violence, & Abuse 22, no. 2 (May 2019): 277-288, accessed January 26, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838019843197. [32] National Coalition on Violence Against Animals, NIBRS User Manual for Animal Control Officers and Humane Law Enforcement (Alexandria, VA: National Coalition on Violence Against Animals), accessed January 26, 2021, https://ncovaa.org/nibrs-manual/. [33] Randour et al. [34] Greg Cima, “FBI Gathers Animal Cruelty Data, But Patterns Have Yet to Emerge,” American Veterinary Medical Association, March 2019, accessed January 26, 2021, https://www.avma.org/javma-news/2019-04-15/fbi-gathers-animal-cruelty-data-patterns-have-yet-emerge. [35] “Animal Cruelty Reporting Scorecard,” Animal Welfare Institute, accessed January 26, 2021, https://awionline.org/content/animal-cruelty-reporting-scorecard. [36] DeSousa. [37] Lacey Levitt, Tia A. Hoffer, and Ann B. Loper, “Criminal Histories of a Subsample of Animal Cruelty Offenders,” Aggression and Violent Behavior 30 (2016): 48-58, accessed January 26, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2016.05.002. [38] “ASPCA Announces Groundbreaking Research Study Underscoring Importance of Animal Cruelty Law Enforcement,” American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, December 2010, accessed January 26, 2021, https://www.aspca.org/about-us/press-releases/aspca-announces-groundbreaking-research-study-underscoring-importance-animal. [39] “ASPCA Poll Reveals Law Enforcement Officers Lack Resources, Training to Properly Address Dog Fighting,” American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, April 2015, accessed January 26, 2021, https://www.aspca.org/about-us/press-releases/aspca-poll-reveals-law-enforcement-officers-lack-resources-training-properly. [40] Olivia S. Garber, “Animal Abuse and Domestic Violence: Why the Connection Justifies Increased Protection,” The University of Memphis Law Review 47 (2016): 359-389, accessed January 26, 2021, https://www.memphis.edu/law/documents/olivia_garber.pdf; and Charlotte Lacroix, “Another Weapon for Combating Family Violence: Prevention of Animal Abuse,” Animal Law 4, no. 1 (1998): 1-32, accessed January 26, 2021, https://www.animallaw.info/sites/default/files/Weapon%20for%20Combating%20Family%20Violence.pdf. [41] Lockwood. [42] Wethal. [43] Garber. [44] Michigan State University, Animal Legal & Historical Center, Cross-Reporting Laws for Child Abuse and Animal Abuse, accessed August 4, 2021, https://www.animallaw.info/intro/cross-reporting-laws-child-abuse-and-animal-abuse; and Garber. [45] Garber. [46] Alberta Girardi and Joanna D. Pozzulo, “The Significance of Animal Cruelty in Child Protection Investigations,” Social Work Research 36, no. 1 (July 2012): 53-60, accessed January 26, 2021, https://doi.org/10.1093/swr/svs012. [47] Allie Phillips and Randall Lockwood, Investigating and Prosecuting Animal Abuse: A Guidebook on Safer Communities, Safer Families and Being an Effective Voice for Animal Victims, National District Attorneys Association, 2013, accessed January 26, 2021, http://www.ncdsv.org/images/NDAA_Investigating-and-prosecuting-animal-abuse_2013.pdf. [48] Arkow. [49] Rebecca F. Wisch, “Table of Veterinary Reporting Requirement and Immunity Laws,” Michigan State University College of Law, 2020, accessed January 26, 2021, https://www.animallaw.info/topic/table-veterinary-reporting-requiremen